睿学教育Wisdome Education

George P. Chrousos MD

• Professor & Chair, First Department of Pediatrics, Athens University Medical School, Athens

http://www.bioacademy.gr/faculty-details/GMo/george-p

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List factors symptoms ulcer secnidazole 500mg buy lowest price, especially during the adolescent period medications 2015 cheap secnidazole 1gr buy on line, that increase the likelihood a person will experiment with or abuse alcohol symptoms 6 year molars generic 500mg secnidazole. Discuss important follow-up with this adolescent and his family after the incident. SUBSTANCE ABUSE different effects, they are associated with feelings of pleasure, positive reinforcement, and compulsive self-administration. Abuse of alcohol and other drugs is a significant health, so- Most are also associated with tolerance if used repeatedly. Substance abuse is often This means that the body adjusts to the drugs so that higher associated with substantial damage to the abuser and society doses are needed to achieve feelings of pleasure or stave off (eg, crime, child and spouse abuse, traumatic injury, death). As used in this chapter, substance abuse is defined as self- administration of a drug for prolonged periods or in excessive DEPENDENCE amounts to the point of producing physical or psychological dependence and reduced ability to function as a productive Characteristics of drug dependence include craving a drug, member of society. These include prescription and non- symptoms if drug use is stopped); and continuing to take a prescription and legal and illegal drugs. Commonly abused drug despite adverse consequences (eg, drug-related illnesses, drugs include CNS depressants (eg, alcohol, antianxiety/ mental or legal problems, job loss or decreased ability to func- sedative-hypnotic agents, opioid analgesics), CNS stimulants tion in an occupation, impaired family relationships). These feelings, per- 236 CHAPTER 15 SUBSTANCE ABUSE DISORDERS 237 ceived as extremely desirable by the drug-dependent person, hol and sedative-type drugs are mainly agitation, ner- contribute to acute intoxication, development and mainte- vousness, and hyperactivity. Most abusers understate the amount and fre- chronic use of a drug so that unpleasant symptoms occur when quency of substance use; heroin addicts may overstate the drug is stopped or its action is antagonized by another the amount used in attempts to obtain higher doses of drug. In addition, those who use illegal street cific manifestations according to the type of drug and does not drugs may not know what they have taken because of occur as long as adequate dosage is maintained. Attempts to varying purity, potency, additives, names, and substitu- avoid withdrawal symptoms reinforce psychological depen- tions of one drug for another. Thus, most substance abuse dependence, and increasing doses are therefore required to ob- comes to the attention of health care professionals when tain psychological effects or avoid physical withdrawal symp- the abuser experiences a complication such as acute in- toms. One view is that drugs stimulate or inhibit neurotrans- • Smoking or inhaling drug vapors is a preferred route of mitters in the brain to produce pleasure and euphoria or to de- administration for cocaine, marijuana, and nicotine be- crease unpleasant feelings such as anxiety. The specific drug cause the drugs are rapidly absorbed from the large sur- and the amount, frequency, and route of administration are face area of the lungs. With crack cocaine, acteristics and environmental or circumstantial characteris- inhaling vapors from the heated drug produces blood tics. Peer pressure is often an important factor in initial and levels comparable to those obtained with intravenous continuing drug ingestion. Additional general characteristics of drugs of unknown potency, contaminated needles, poor substance abuse and dependence include the following: hygiene, and other dangerous practices. Specific prob- • Substance abuse involves all socioeconomic levels and lems include overdoses, death, and numerous infections almost all age groups, from school-aged children to el- (eg, hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus infection, derly adults. For example, adolescents and young adults may be more Many drugs are abused for their mind-altering proper- likely to use illicit drugs and older adults are more likely ties. Most of these have clinical usefulness and are dis- to abuse alcohol and prescription drugs. Health care pro- cussed elsewhere: Antianxiety and Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs fessionals (eg, physicians, pharmacists, nurses) are also (see Chap. This chapter describes commonly abused sub- • A person who abuses one drug is likely to abuse others. Alcohol, disorders, and drugs used to treat substance-related disorders for example, is often used with other drugs of abuse, (see Drugs at a Glance: Drugs Used to Treat Substance probably because it is legal and readily available. DEPRESSANTS • Drug effects vary according to the type of substance being abused, the amount, route of administration, du- CNS depressants are drugs that slow down or depress brain ration of use, and phase of substance abuse (eg, acute in- activity. They include alcohol, antianxiety and sedative- toxication, withdrawal syndromes, organ damage, and hypnotic agents, and opiates. Thus, acute intoxication often pro- duces profound behavioral changes and chronic abuse often leads to serious organ damage and impaired abil- Alcohol (Ethanol) ity to function in work, family, or social settings. With- drawal symptoms are characteristic for particular types Alcohol is the most abused drug in the world. It is legal and of drugs and are usually opposite the effects originally readily available, and its use is accepted in most societies. For example, withdrawal symptoms of alco- There is no clear dividing line between use and abuse, but 238 SECTION 2 DRUGS AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Drugs at a Glance: Drugs Used to Treat Substance Abuse Disorders Generic/Trade Name Indications for Use Routes and Dosage Ranges Comments Bupropion (Zyban) Smoking cessation PO 150 mg once daily for 3 days, then increase to 150 mg twice daily, at least 8 hours apart. Maximum dose, 300 mg/d Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) Alcohol detoxification; benzo- PO 50 mg q6–8h initially, then diazepine withdrawal tapered over 1–2 wk Clonidine (Catapres) Alcohol withdrawal; opiate with- Alcohol withdrawal Unlabeled uses drawal PO 0.

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Watson is sched- study of pregnant women and older adults with marginal uled for an intravenous pyelogram (IVP) to evaluate a series of re- levels of chromium medicine you cannot take with grapefruit secnidazole 1gr purchase with visa, administration of a supplement im- cent urinary tract infections symptoms for bronchitis order 1 gr secnidazole overnight delivery. Watson comes in for her test symptoms west nile virus cheap secnidazole 500mg line, she mentions that her blood glucose was elevated that morn- proved glucose tolerance. At present, there is insufficient ing, so she took her metformin as usual with a sip of water but did evidence to recommend routine chromium supplementa- not eat breakfast as instructed. Some clinical trials have been done, but peo- ple with diabetes were excluded. Some sources report no known effects on blood Glucosamine, as indicated by animal studies, may cause glucose; others report a decrease in animals and hu- impaired beta cell function and insulin secretion similar mans. Some researchers also reported increased serum to that observed in humans with type 2 diabetes. Long- insulin and improvement in liver glycogen storage after term effects in humans are unknown, but the product is garlic administration. There is a potential for additive considered potentially harmful to people with diabetes hypoglycemic effects with antidiabetic drugs, although or impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). Several studies (generally small and not well- tidiabetic medications have not been reported. How- designed) indicate that ginseng lowers blood glucose ever, blood sugar should be monitored carefully. It may chondroitin, which is often taken with glucosamine for be useful in preventing diabetes or complications of dia- osteoarthritis, there is no information about effects on betes. However, larger and longer studies are needed be- blood sugar, use by diabetic clients, or interactions with fore general use can be recommended for diabetics or antidiabetic drugs. For nondiabetics who use ginseng, the herb may need to be taken with a meal to prevent unintentional hypoglycemia. For diabetics, use of ginseng should be very cautious (if at all), with frequent monitoring Supplements that May Decrease of blood glucose and signs of hypoglycemia, because of Blood Glucose Levels possible additive effects with antidiabetic medications. Its use should also be accompanied by proper diet, physical Basil, which is commonly used in cooking, is also avail- activity, and antidiabetic medication. The amounts used in Glucomannan, which is promoted as a diet aid and laxa- cooking are unlikely to affect blood sugar, but larger tive, has hypoglycemic effects and should be avoided amounts may cause hypoglycemia or increase the hypo- or used very cautiously by people with diabetes. If used, blood glucose Guar gum is a type of fiber that becomes gel-like upon levels should be closely monitored. It is used as a Bay leaf is commonly used in cooking (it should be re- thickening agent in foods and drugs and is an ingredi- moved from the food before eating) and is also avail- ent in some over-the-counter weight loss products. It increases should be used cautiously, if at all, by people with dia- the effects of insulin and is sometimes recommended by betes because it has hypoglycemic effects and slows nutritionists for diabetic diets. It may increase production of in- sulin receptors and insulin binding to the receptors, thereby increasing insulin effectiveness, lowering Nursing Process blood glucose levels, and decreasing insulin require- ments in people with diabetes. It also may have ben- Assessment eficial effects on serum cholesterol levels. Ankle edema may indi- ment, occurrence of complications such as ketoacidosis, cate venous insufficiency or impaired cardiac function. Clients with diabetes have a prepares the food, what factors help in following the high incidence of atherosclerosis, which makes them diet, what factors interfere with following the diet, the susceptible to hypertension, angina pectoris, myocardial current weight, and whether there has been a recent infarction, peripheral vascular disease, and stroke. Also ask if herbal or other dietary sup- Therefore, check blood pressure and ask about chest plements are used. If so, list each one by name and fre- pain and pain in the legs with exercise (intermittent quency of use. Ask the client to describe usual activities of have kidney and bladder problems. Assess for signs of daily living, including those related to work, home, and urinary tract infection; albumin, white blood cells, or recreation and whether he or she participates in a regu- blood in urine; edema; increased urination at night; dif- lar exercise program. If so, ask for more information ficulty voiding; generalized itching; fatigue; and mus- about what, how often, how long, and so forth.

Diseases

• 3-methyl glutaconic aciduria
• Hyperadrenalism
• Anophthalmia esophageal atresia cryptorchidism
• Legionellosis
• Alopecia contractures dwarfism mental retardation
• Ventriculo-arterial discordance, isolated
• Cleft palate short stature vertebral anomalies
• Microcephaly sparse hair mental retardation seizures
• Giant ganglionic hyperplasia

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Less effective metabolism of glucose (decreased and improve urine flow by inhibiting contraction of muscles glycogenolysis) when needed by the body medications causing hyponatremia buy 500mg secnidazole fast delivery, especially in the prostate and urinary bladder symptoms 10dpo generic secnidazole 1 gr on-line. These clients may experience more ripheral alpha1 receptors to cause vasodilation and alpha2 re- severe and prolonged hypoglycemia symptoms 3 dpo buy secnidazole with a visa. Consequently, decreased symptoms of hypoglycemia (eg, tachycardia) may be blood pressure is accompanied by tachycardia and perhaps blocked, delaying recognition of the hypoglycemia. Chronic use of beta blockers is associated with in- Beta-Adrenergic Blocking Drugs creased very–low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and de- creased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents occupy beta-adrenergic re- These changes pose a potential risk for patients with ceptor sites and prevent the receptors from responding to cardiovascular disease. Diminished portal vein pressure in patients with beta-adrenergic drugs. Decreased force of myocardial contraction (negative inotropy) Indications for Use 3. Slowed conduction through the atrioventricular (AV) Alpha-Adrenergic Agonists and Blocking Agents node (negative dromotropy) 5. Decreased automaticity of ectopic pacemakers Alpha2 agonists are used in the treatment of hypertension. Decreased blood pressure in supine and standing for the relief of severe pain in cancer patients. This effect occurs primarily in people with uses of clonidine include treatment of alcohol withdrawal and hypertension. However, in selected patients who during anesthesia, treatment of migraines, and attention are able to tolerate the effects of beta blockers, the drugs are deficit-hyperactivity disorder. For these patients, beta blockers decrease the risk approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for of sudden cardiac death and may reduce ventricular remodel- these purposes. Nonselective alpha- ing to beta-adrenergic receptors in the ciliary body of the eye blocking agents are not used as antihypertensive drugs except and decreasing formation of aqueous humor. Exces- Propranolol (Inderal) is the prototype of beta-adrenergic sive catecholamines may result from overdosage of adrener- blocking agents. It is also the oldest and most extensively gic drugs or from pheochromocytoma, a rare tumor of the studied beta blocker. In addition to its use in the treatment adrenal medulla that secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine of hypertension, dysrhythmias, angina pectoris, and myo- and causes hypertension, tachycardia, and cardiac dysrhyth- cardial infarction, propranolol is used to treat a wide variety mias. Although the treatment of choice for pheochromocytoma of other conditions. In hypertrophic obstructive cardiomy- is surgical excision, alpha-adrenergic blocking drugs are opathy, it is used to improve exercise tolerance by increas- useful adjuncts. In pheochromocytoma, it is used in usually in conjunction with beta blockers. Phentolamine (Regitine) also can treating dissecting aortic aneurysms by decreasing systolic be used to prevent tissue necrosis from extravasation of blood pressure. Propranolol decreases heart rate, cardiac potent vasoconstrictors (eg, norepinephrine, dopamine) into output, and tremor in patients with hyperthyroidism. The drug also relieves Beta-Adrenergic Blocking Drugs palpitation and tremor associated with anxiety and stage Clinical indications for use of beta-blocking agents are mainly fright, but it is not approved for clinical use as an antianxiety cardiovascular disorders (ie, angina pectoris, cardiac tachy- drug. Some patients experiencing alcohol withdrawal may arrhythmias, hypertension, myocardial infarction, congestive also benefit from the administration of propranolol. In cirrhosis of the liver, research indicates that propranolol In angina, beta blockers decrease myocardial contractility, may decrease the incidence of the initial episode of bleeding cardiac output, heart rate, and blood pressure. These effects esophageal varices, prevent rebleeding episodes, and decrease decrease myocardial oxygen demand (cardiac workload), es- the mortality rate due to hemorrhage. In dys- rhythmias, drug effects depend on the sympathetic tone of the heart (ie, the degree of adrenergic stimulation of the heart that Contraindications to Use the drug must block or overcome). The drugs slow the sinus rate and prolong conduction through the AV node, thereby Alpha2 agonists are contraindicated in clients with hypersen- slowing the ventricular response rate to supraventricular sitivity to the drugs, and methyldopa is also contraindicated tachyarrhythmias. Alpha-adrenergic block- In hypertension, the actions by which the drugs lower ing agents are contraindicated in angina pectoris, myocardial blood pressure are unclear. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents are duced cardiac output, inhibition of renin, and inhibition of contraindicated in bradycardia, heart block, and asthma and sympathetic nervous system stimulation in the brain.

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PAD interneurones (INs) control the efficacy of the Ia volley in firing Sol MNs medications side effects prescription drugs cheap secnidazole 500 mg on line. The size of the conditioned responses (expressed as a percentage of their control values) is plotted against the interstimulus interval (ISI) treatment for hemorrhoids order genuine secnidazole online. The two reflexes were adjusted to have the same size (2–3% of Mmax in the control situation) medications used for adhd purchase secnidazole 1 gr amex. Data for the stretch reflex are advanced by 12 ms in relation to the H reflex to take its longer latency into account. Accordingly, inhibition at rest (as sketched in the wiring dia- underphysiologicalsituations,suchasvoluntaryco- gram in Fig. This ulospinal suppression); (ii) tonic inhibitory control indicates that extrapolation of the results obtained of the inhibitory interneurones transmitting cuta- with the H reflex to the stretch reflex during move- neous inhibition of first-order PAD interneurones ment should be made with caution. Possible mechanisms and functional significance the different sensitivity to presynaptic inhibition of Weak sensitivity of stretch-evoked Ia electrically and mechanically evoked reflexes may volleys to presynaptic inhibition be explained by the repetitive discharge of Ia affer- ents in the stretch-induced volley and the differ- Evidence for differential sensitivity ences in dispersion of the afferent volleys. Pre- Presynaptic inhibition of soleus Ia terminals, synaptic inhibition may be compensated for by the whether induced by a biceps femoris tendon tap or increased probability of transmitter release when an electrical volley to the common peroneal nerve the Ia motoneurone synapse is activated repetitively (D1), reduces the H reflex much more than the ten- at short intervals, as occurs with abrupt muscle don jerk or the reflex response to abrupt stretch of stretch, but it may exert its inhibitory action fully Motor tasks – physiological implications 355 on the highly synchronised electrically induced vol- the soleus. Thus, the depressive effect of presynaptic inhi- Meunier & Pierrot-Deseilligny, 1989). The (20 Hz) as in the case for the normal background huge increase in reflex facilitation ( ,Fig. While this issue needs to be kept the contraction-related decrease in presynaptic in mind, only with abrupt stretch will the spindle inhibition of Ia terminals on soleus motoneurones discharge reach rates of 200 Hz, and this they will has been confirmed by the finding that the depres- do only transiently. Hence, the caveat is likely to be sion of the soleus H reflex produced at rest by a short important for the reflex responses to abrupt external train of vibration to the tibialis anterior tendon dis- disturbances rather than the reflex support to most appearscompletelyattheonsetofasoleusvoluntary natural motor activities. The decrease in the vibratory inhibition, in parallel with theincreasedheteronymousfacilitationofthereflex, Motor tasks and physiological implies depression of PAD interneurones mediating implications presynaptic inhibition of Ia terminals projecting to soleus motoneurones (cf. The Ia spinal stretch reflex has been shown to con- tribute to many natural motor tasks (cf. Because presynaptic inhibition of Ia ter- Presynaptic inhibition of quadriceps Ia afferents minals allows the central nervous system to control the vibratory inhibition of the quadriceps H reflex the gain of the Ia feedback, changes in presynaptic similarly disappears almost completely at the onset inhibition of Ia terminals have been systematically of a selective voluntary quadriceps contraction. Ia terminals on lower limb motoneurones Changes in presynaptic inhibition during involved in voluntary contractions various contractions Evidence for decreased presynaptic inhibition the supplementary femoral-induced facilitation of the soleus H reflex at the onset of a contraction com- Heteronymous facilitation of the H reflex pared with that at rest ( in Fig. The time course of this supplementary at the onset of a selective voluntary contraction of facilitation has been investigated during voluntary Fig. Decrease in presynaptic inhibition of soleus Ia terminals at the onset of soleus voluntary contraction. Presynaptic inhibition of homonymous (in the inferior soleus [Inf Sol] nerve) and heteronymous (from quadriceps [Q] in the femoral nerve [FN]) Ia afferents to soleus (Sol) motoneurones (MN) is mediated through a subset of common first-order PAD interneurones (INs). The supplementary facilitation of the reflex at the onset of contraction, i. Modified from Pierrot-Deseilligny (1997)((b)–(e)), and Meunier & Pierrot-Deseilligny (1989)((f ), (g)), with permission. Changes in presynaptic inhibition at the onset of voluntary contraction of various muscles. Presynaptic inhibition of homonymous and heteronymous Ia terminals to a given motoneurone (MN) pool (Sol or Q) is mediated through common first-order PAD INs. In addition, there is corticospinal depression (thick continuous line) of PAD INs mediating presynaptic inhibition of Ia terminals on MNs involved in the contraction, and facilitation (thin dotted line) of those acting on Ia terminals on MNs not involved in the contraction. The H reflex (as a percentage of its unconditioned value, dashed horizontal line) of Q at the onset of Q (c) and Sol (f ) contractions and of Sol at the onset of Q (d ) and Sol (e) contractions. Each column represents the mean of 100 measurements in a single subject. This may be due to a balance between descending inhibitionofPADinterneuronesandtheirperipheral Time course of changes in presynaptic inhibition excitationbythenaturalfeedbackfromthecontract- At the onset of the contraction, presynaptic inhibi- ing muscle. During the first half of the ramp, it remains much less than at rest but, in Origin and functional implications the middle of the ramp, it returns to its rest level Origin.

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If you generally need alcohol to unwind or blow off steam medications vs medicine discount secnidazole 1 gr, find another outlet for your emotions—such as a hard cardio sculpting workout medicine quotes doctor discount secnidazole 1gr online. Before you put the book down and start heading for the door medications in spanish purchase genuine secnidazole, relax and sit tight. I 118 THE ULTIMATE NEW YORK BODY PLAN TLFeBOOK realize that this all-or-nothing approach to alcohol may not be very realistic. Even my mother likes a little glass of champagne (rosé preferably) every now and again. The last time you ate at an Italian restaurant, were you able to hold yourself to just one piece of bread from the bread basket? They deceptively pack a mean punch of car- bohydrates and often sodium and, usually, trans fats. Carrots, potatoes, rice, pasta, and corn all contain high amounts of carbohydrates and rank high or relatively high on the glycemic index. Not a solitary meal that Grandma prepared was devoid of starchy carbohydrates in the form of kugel, pancakes, or mashed potatoes. I will tell you this with complete certainty: Eating a meal without the starches will leave you feeling sated but light, alert, and without the typical tummy bloating that those starches often bring. Of course, it took my entire freshman year of college for me to attribute the pains in my stomach to excessive carbohydrate consumption. Once realized, it was smooth sailing and a two-size reduction in my jeans. It leads to bloating, which is the last thing you want when you want to look your best. On the other hand, dairy products are high in the mineral calcium, which is an important component of fat burning. Any sweet food can lead to carbohydrate cravings, includ- ing sugar substitutes. On the Ultimate New York Body Plan, you will avoid all sources of sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and sugar substitutes. That means no fruit juice, no diet or regular soda, no artificial sweeteners, no honey, and no molasses. If you crave a sweet taste, then try an herbal tea such as one with peppermint or vanilla flavor. This is espe- cially true with sugar substitutes such as sorbitol, saccharin, and aspartame. Eating fake sugar will forever keep you dependent on the taste of sweet- ness. Worse, some research indicates that sugar substitutes create the same surge in insulin, the fat storage hormone, as the real thing. It become abundantly clear to me as we spoke that she was consuming too much fruit. In the maintenance chapter (Chapter 7), you will learn which fruits can be reintroduced into your diet. Instead, all your protein will be lean: skinless chicken breast, egg whites, fresh roasted turkey breast, turkey bacon, wild salmon, fresh tuna, halibut, and striped bass, to name a few. These foods are not regulated by the FDA, and many of them con- tain more carbs than you bargain for. Nuts are good and satisfying, and the Ultimate Body Plan prescribes 7 to 10 raw almonds a day. Not only will you be getting a great supply of fiber (which will help keep you regular), but almonds have a higher concentration of vitamin E than any other food. You can also use up to a teaspoon of olive oil a day, as a dressing for your salad. For these two weeks, you will stay away from additional unsaturated fats such as avocados, olives, peanut butter, and egg yolks.

Syndromes

• When was the last dental checkup?
• Is there any abdominal pain?
• Active sleep
• High blood pressure
• When did you last have a general check-up?
• Birth defects of the lower spine

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She was so weak after the second back operation that her husband had to carry her in his arms around the house and to the bathroom medications major depression 500mg secnidazole otc. The third back operation had been a year before I saw her medications quotes order 500mg secnidazole with amex, and the numbness in both feet that followed that operation had just cleared up a few months ago facial treatment order secnidazole 1 gr visa. I would interrupt her to amplify details for each story and each com- plication or drug reaction. I left after the first visit, saying that I had a lot of things to think about and that I did not know what I would recommend. About this time in my search for new ways to deal with difficult patients like Regina, I had read a book called Change (Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch 1974) The authors described a patient very much like Regina who they posited liked to defeat experts. They mentioned a class of people who, for whatever reason, play a game of defeating experts. Tere is only one way that an expert (a clini- cian, in this case) can be defeated and help the patient at the same time, the authors suggest: a therapeutic paradox. According to the method described in Change, the patient (in this case, Regina) is saying unconsciously: No matter what you do, I will stay sick. You have heard all my old experiences with doc- tors, and in each one I did not get well. In fact, no matter what the A Paradoxical Approach 145 doctor did, I got worse. The therapeutic paradox the authors suggested is what I tried with Regina. I discussed the case with the orthopedist and he agreed with the approach I outlined. He had nothing to offer the patient and could think of no other tests or operations that would help. She had been in physical therapy for months with no help; in fact, she thought she had strained her back even further with some of the treatments. I asked the head nurse on the unit to be there and witness what I told Regina. I was very anxious because I had never been as frank as I intended to be with Regina, and I could not predict what reaction she might have. I intended to tell her exactly what I thought about her present condition and what I thought would happen to her in the future. I was going to follow the rules of the paradox, because I believed it was as close to the truth as I could get. If it did not, I could not imagine how it would hurt her except to make her angry. I recounted in great and slow detail all her previous operations and the complications and problems she had after each one. After I went over all the operations, I went on to the drugs and retold the side effects and toxic reactions she had told me about. I named all her previous doctors and what she said they had told her and how she thought each one was wrong and how each one had not helped but had indeed made her worse. I then went back over the physician list, naming each doctor 146 Symptoms of Unknown Origin who had seen her and what problems he or she had caused. And then I said something like this: I know some of these doctors, and they are fine physicians and surgeons. Why, I wonder to myself, do you think I would be any better than those you have seen. You are allergic to or you get sick with every known pain-re- lieving drug. Tere are no other tests, no other operations, no other drugs to recommend. You will probably have a lot more operations and complications and bad effects. I am sure you will take a lot more drugs and get allergic or have side effects with each one. I told her again slowly and calmly that I did not know of any doctors that could help her.

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However treatment hiatal hernia cheap secnidazole online mastercard, an oral approach would not design used in the Saltz trial treatment uterine cancer order secnidazole 500mg with mastercard,68 where irinotecan likely be accepted if it did not provide at least plus 5-FU and leucovorin was compared to 5- equivalent efficacy to an IV approach medications not to crush secnidazole 1 gr otc. In this trial, patients who two large equivalence trials have been conducted progressed on the 5-FU and leucovorin arm comparinganoraltoanIVregimen. Thesetwo were able to receive irinotecan off study, as it trials, one reported by Hoff et al. In both cases, formal equivalence difference in terms of overall survival, even was declared. For this reason, time be optimised by using continuous infusion 5-FU to tumour progression was specified as the based therapy as opposed to bolus. This study of the addition of irinotecan as a component of 680 patients concluded that (1) semustine is not the initial treatment resulted in both improved necessary, and (2) infusional 5-FU based ther- time to progression and overall survival, making apy during the radiotherapy provides a survival the result clear. GI malignancies in the number of new cases In contrast, NSABP study R-01 tested three arms per year. When the initial diagnosis for rectal in a randomised manner in 574 patients: no post- cancer is as advanced disease, i. Despite these two post-operative setting was considered by many as consistent results, radiation continues to be com- the standard of care in the United States, based monly used in the post-operative treatment of primarily on an observed benefit in lowering the stage 2 and 3 rectal cancer. In particular, radiation Increasingly, practitioners are turning to deliv- as a single agent added to surgery had never ering radiotherapy for rectal cancer in the pre- been shown to improve overall survival com- operative setting. The efficacy that considerable work remains to define the opti- of this approach has never been established in mal timings and combinations of the different a randomised trial. Regardless of the specifics of the pre-operative SELECTED METHODOLOGIC ISSUES approach, a burning question concerns whether WITH EXAMPLES the pre- or post-operative approach provides the best outcome. Two randomised trials have been attempted in the United States, and both were the number and variety of large Phase III closed early far short of their accrual goals due randomised trials that have been conducted in GI to poor accrual. However, an ongoing trial in cancers brings to light a number of clinical trials Europe has been more successful, with accrual of methodology issues that have direct relevance to over 600 patients to one of the two approaches. In this section we will highlight in both arms, and both arms are receiving the three such issues: subgroup analysis, the study of same chemotherapy regimen in combination with prognostic and predictive factors, and monitoring the radiation. In addition to the controversies present in chemotherapy and radiation therapy, there is SUBGROUP ANALYSIS considerable interest in the optimal surgical management of this disease. In particular, the Studies are often conducted in multiple possible surgical approach of total mesorectal excision heterogeneous groups of patients in order to (TME) has been promoted as an important achieve a necessary sample size, or to complete surgical advance. The conduct subgroup historical data, proponents of TME have claimed analyses, that is, to examine the result of a significant reductions in local recurrence rates trial separately in different groups of randomised and improved overall survival compared to patients, is extremely important. In a large randomised trial of patients of different ages, or patients enrolled 1861 patients conducted by the Dutch Colorectal from different countries, then the overall result Cancer Group, pre-operative radiation was shown cannot be explained by an extreme result in to reduce the rate of local recurrence compared one subset of patients. Additionally, subgroup to no radiation when all patients received TME analyses are important in generating hypotheses surgery. However, caution must be follow-up of 2 years in living patients, there was exercised when examining the results of subset no improvement in overall survival for patients analyses, particularly if they were not pre- receiving radiation. In summary, it is clear that rectal cancer is One example of a subgroup analysis of great an area where randomised clinical trials have controversy in the setting of GI cancers is made several important contributions to improv- whether post-surgical adjuvant treatment is ben- ing patient outcomes. Post-operative chemother- eficial for patients with stage 2 colon cancer, apy and chemoradiotherapy, and pre-operative as discussed previously. Historically, most trials 130 TEXTBOOK OF CLINICAL TRIALS in adjuvant colon cancer have included patients treatment benefit in both subgroups of patients; with both stage 2 and 3 disease. The majority of the absence of a significant interaction implies patients in such trials have been stage 3 patients, that there is no evidence that the benefit of treat- and subset analyses within these trials have con- ment differs by patient subgroup. However, because the majority of patients in such trials have not been to demonstrate a different feature of subgroup stage 2, and because the prognosis for the stage analyses. The first trial, R-01, demonstrated a 2 patients is overall more favourable, with fewer significant benefit in terms of overall survival patient deaths and thus less statistical power, for the addition of chemotherapy following the individual studies have not shown consistent resection compared to no post-surgical treatment. As mentioned However, in subgroup analyses, this benefit above, two pooled analyse have been conducted, seemed to be limited to the male patients, with conflicting results. The NSABP is commended for obtaining and using the individ- to be commended for treating this finding as ual patient data from each of the included trials, hypothesis generating, and testing the hypothesis and for having very complete follow-up for the in their next study R-02.

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How- years kapous treatment order secnidazole 1 gr with amex, for treatment of both latent and active disease medications mexico secnidazole 1gr purchase free shipping, ever medications qd secnidazole 1gr low cost, in the United States, they have been most evident is to give short courses of treatment (eg, 6 months) in populations with AIDS, in closed environments when possible. Such regimens are more likely to be (eg, hospitals, prisons, long-term care facilities, home- completed and completion decreases the prevalence of less shelters), and in large urban areas. Fixed-dose combination tablets (eg, Rifamate and with MDR-TB or suspected of having MDR-TB should Rifater) are recommended by some authorities, because be designed in consultation with infectious disease they help to prevent the emergence of drug-resistant or- specialists. Treatment of MDR-TB requires concurrent adminis- of usual activities of daily living. Short-course regi- tration of more drugs (eg, 4 to 6), for a longer period mens, intermittent dosing (eg, 2 or 3 times weekly of time (eg, 2 years or longer), than for drug-susceptible rather than daily), and fixed-dose combinations of tuberculosis. The specific regimen is derived from cul- drugs (eg, Rifater or Rifamate) reduce the number of tures of infecting strains and susceptibility tests with pri- pills and the duration of therapy. It should include 2 or 3 drugs to which the With clients for whom English is not their primary isolate is sensitive and that the client has not taken language, it is desirable to have a health care worker before. The fluoroquinolones are not recommended for who speaks their language or who belongs to their eth- use in children. All drug therapy for suspected or known MDR-TB tively teach clients and others, elicit cooperation with should involve daily administration and DOT. HIV population, and costs many thousand dollars more than the treatment of drug-susceptible TB. Monitoring Antitubercular Drug Therapy Increasing Adherence to Antituberculosis There are two main methods of monitoring client responses Drug Therapy to treatment, clinical and laboratory. The current trend seems to be increasing clinical monitoring and decreasing laboratory Failure to complete treatment regimens is a major problem in monitoring. Identifying drug therapy and obtaining medical care (eg, hepato- and treating LTBI requires several steps, including adminis- toxicity). It also includes regular assessment by a tering and reading skin tests, obtaining medical evaluations health care provider. Clinical monitoring should be of infected persons, and initiating, monitoring, and complet- repeated at each monthly visit. Nonadherence is common in all of these as- sessed for signs of liver disease (eg, loss of appetite, pects. Numerous strategies have been proposed to increase nausea, vomiting, dark urine, jaundice, numbness or adherence, including: tingling of the hands and feet, fatigue, abdominal ten- 1. This may be es- derness, easy bruising or bleeding) at least monthly if pecially important with treatment of LTBI. Most peo- receiving INH alone or rifampin alone and at 2, 4, and ple are more motivated to take medications and schedule 8 weeks if receiving rifampin and pyrazinamide. In follow-up care when they have symptoms than when addition to detecting adverse effects, these ongoing they feel well and have no symptoms. The importance contacts are opportunities to reinforce teaching, as- of treatment for the future health of the individual, sess adherence with therapy since the last visit, and significant others, and the community must be em- observe for drug interactions. In addition, clients should be informed view form may be helpful in eliciting appropriate about common and potential adverse effects of drug information. Monitoring during therapy is indi- with inconvenient hours, long waiting times, and un- cated for patients who have abnormal baseline values supportive staff) may deter clients from being evalu- or other risk factors for liver disease and those who ated for a positive skin test, initiating treatment, or develop symptoms of liver damage. Some clinicians completing the prescribed treatment and follow-up recommend that INH be stopped for transaminase care. Individualizing treatment regimens, when possible, ciated with symptoms and five times the upper limit to increase client convenience and minimize disruption of normal if the patient is asymptomatic. CHAPTER 38 DRUGS FOR TUBERCULOSIS AND MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM COMPLEX (MAC) DISEASE 571 Effects of Antitubercular are HIV-seronegative clients. The regimen may be longer if Drugs on Other Drugs the bacteriologic (eg, negative cultures) or clinical response (eg, improvement in symptoms) is slow or inadequate. Isoniazid (INH) increases risks of toxicity with several drugs, A major difficulty with treatment of TB in clients with apparently by inhibiting their metabolism and increasing HIV infection is that rifampin interacts with many protease their blood levels. These include acetaminophen, carba- inhibitors (PIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase in- mazepine, haloperidol, ketoconazole, phenytoin (effects of hibitors (NNRTIs).

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The most comprehensive surgery-alone group was 11 months compared randomised trial in this regard was performed to 64 months in the 28 patients randomised to by the Lung Cancer Study Group and it demon- the combined-modality arm medicine ball exercises buy discount secnidazole 1 gr line. Median survival (37 months published in 1995 found a small improvement in vs treatment cervical cancer generic secnidazole 500mg overnight delivery. How- operative problems were excluded revealed a ever medicine 8 discogs purchase secnidazole 1gr on-line, a randomised intergroup study has been 0. Other subset analysis looked to receive either radiotherapy plus chemotherapy at outcome by patient stage and found that (cisplatin and etoposide for four cycles) or radio- the patients with N0/N1 disease who received therapy alone. The median and long-term survival chemo/surgery had a hazard ratio of 0. An intergroup study evaluating chemo/RThis under investigation, it cannot be routinely rec- vs. Both involved 60 patients and both stage IIIB disease is also controversial. Current report response rates of 35–62% following induc- investigational efforts are directed at identify- tion chemotherapy. Both have also reported pro- ing the optimal combined-modality approach, longed survival, prompting early closure of both involving treatments directed at local control 164 TEXTBOOK OF CLINICAL TRIALS of the disease, i. Possibilities include radiotherapy only, pre- operative chemotherapy, or chemotherapy plus Second-Line Chemotherapy radiotherapy. Docetaxel was recently approved for the second- Chemotherapy plus Radiation Therapy:Chemo- line treatment of NSCLC, based upon two therapy plus radiotherapy is the treatment of clinical trials. One trial compared two doses of choice for patients with bulky or inopera- docetaxel with best supportive care, and found an ble stage III disease. Two randomised studies improvement in median and long-term survival, have demonstrated an improvement in median 33 despite a low response rate of 7%. The other and long-term survival with chemotherapy fol- trial compared docetaxel to either vinorelbine or lowed by radiation therapy versus radiotherapy 20,21 ifosfamide (the treatment physician was allowed alone. More recently, two randomised trials to choose) and found an improvement in long- have shown that concurrent chemoradiotherapy 34 term, although not median survival. One such example is the epidermal never been looked at in a formal phase III setting, growth factor receptor (EGFr), which has been so its relative efficacy compared to standard dose found to be expressed in the majority of patients chemotherapy has not been rigorously assessed. Based upon two phase II tri- als in previously treated NSCLC patients, in which response rates of 10–20% were found,35,36 Stage IV Disease two phase III trials were initiated comparing Several meta-analyses have demonstrated that chemotherapy plus an EGFr inhibitor, ZD1839, chemotherapy improves survival in patients with with chemotherapy in untreated NSCLC. Some- metastatic NSCLC (approximately 10% 1-year what surprisingly, no benefit was observed in these trials. These include, among TREATMENT: SMALL-CELL LUNG CANCER others, vinorelbine, the taxanes (docetaxel and paclitaxel), gemcitabine and the topoisomerase Small-cell lung cancer differs from NSCLC in I inhibitors (irinotecan and topotecan). Ran- a number of important ways: (1) it has a more domised studies have shown that these agents rapid clinical course and natural history, with the improve survival when combined with cisplatin, rapid development of metastases, symptoms and as compared to cisplatin alone,27,28 or the other death; (2) it exhibits features of neuroendocrine agent alone. Because of the (cyclophosphamide, adriamycin and vincristine) rapid development of distant disease and its as second-line therapy revealed no difference in extreme sensitivity to the cytotoxic effects of response rates, duration of response, or survival chemotherapy, this mode of therapy forms the between the two groups. Chemotherapy plus Chest Irradiation First-Line Therapy Numerous studies have been done with chemo- A number of combination chemotherapeutic reg- therapy and thoracic radiotherapy for patients imens are available for SCLC. Conflicting results have chemotherapy regimens, overall response rates of been attributed to differences in chemother- 75–90% and complete response rates of 50% apy regimens and different schedules integrat- for localised disease can be anticipated. Despite these high response radiation does result in a small but significant rates, however, the median survival time remains improvement in survival and major control of about 14 months for limited-stage disease and the disease in the chest, although no conclusions 7–9 months for extensive-stage disease. Less could be made regarding the optimal sequencing than 5% of extensive-stage patients have long- of chemotherapy and thoracic radiation. A phase III randomised trial has been reported Fractionation of Radiotherapy: For limited-stage in abstract form, in which patients with SCLC SCLC, thoracic radiotherapy has been known were randomised to the control arm of etoposide to improve survival, but the best ways of inte- and cisplatin, versus cisplatin and the topoiso- 39 grating chemotherapy and thoracic radiotherapy merase I inhibitor, irinotecan. In order to settle this question, a and 1-year survival was 420 days and 60% in phase III randomised clinical trial was conducted the cisplatin/irinotecan arm and 300 days and in which 417 patients with limited SCLC were 40% in the cisplatin/etoposide arm. If ongo- randomised to receive a total of 45 Gy of radio- ing phase III studies confirm these results, cis- therapy, either twice-daily over a 3-week period or platin/irinotecan would become the first combi- once-daily over a 5-week period, concurrently with nation of chemotherapy to improve survival over 43 four 21-day cycles of cisplatin plus etoposide.

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Writing a press release is a completely different skill from writing a scientific paper treatment lyme disease buy line secnidazole. Journalists receive dozens of press releases every day – far more than they have room to print medicine etodolac purchase secnidazole with paypal. Then make sure that the rest of the press release deals only with information relating to that message symptoms 3 weeks into pregnancy 500 mg secnidazole otc. Write five or six paragraphs of two to three short sentences each: if the journalist wants more then they will contact you. Include information only that is strictly relevant, otherwise you risk sending the journalist off on another story altogether. The object of the exercise is not to please your boss or colleagues, but to get a story published. Newspapers use a much different language from the one you are used to (see readability tests). Identify clearly that it is a press release from a reputable organization. At the end of the text put a contact telephone number, and make sure that someone will be there when the phone rings. If you wish to include a value judgement, get someone to say it on the record (see quote). Do not be put off by the inevitable criticism from those with other interests (see false feedback loop). Process of writing There are dozens of books telling aspiring writers what a piece of writing should look like after they have finished with it; few books tell them how to get there. Yet how we approach our writing has a fundamental effect on how it turns out. Writing often fails because we have no clear idea what we are doing, for whom and why. This is why it is helpful to spend some rumination time at the start working out the answers to these questions. You can combine your rumination with other things, like walking, or cycling or cooking. Resist the temptation to start writing too soon (see premature expostulation); instead, jot down the basics of your brief (see brief setting). Putting things down on paper is easy; the difficult bit is knowing which bits to put down and in which order. We therefore need a stage during which we formulate our argument and collect our informa- tion. This is better done before we start writing, and there are useful techniques (see branching) that can help us. Once you know what you could say to support your message, you need to 102 PROCESS OF WRITING choose what you have room for – and how to order it. This means choosing an appropriate structure for your piece of writing, and then writing a simple plan outlining what each paragraph will deal with. Keep this very short: this is not a first draft but a route map that will help you on your way. But this is your chance to be creative not critical, and writers should let themselves go at this point, working in short periods of 15 minutes or so, encouraging creativity and suppressing the urge to stem the flow, to fiddle with the style or check the details of a difficult reference (see free writing). This is a vital period, when we work on our first draft, making sure that it works on all major levels (see macro-editing) and that the details are also thoroughly checked (see micro-editing). The important thing to bear in mind is that this is an essential part of the process, and that time spent on this stage does not spell failure One final point: we are all different, and can reach the same goal in different ways. BOOKLIST: the process of writing • Writing on both sides of the brain, by Henrietta Anne Klauser, New York: HarperCollins, 1987. A little gushing, but a stimu- lating look at the creative aspects of writing.

Ressel, 51 years: The problem is further compounded by anxiety disorder patients try to avoid thinking difficulties inherent in rating panic frequency. How- ever, with alcohol-induced liver disease (ie, cirrhosis), effects may be increased owing to impaired metabolism of warfarin. Neural Stem or Precursor Cells as Delivery Vehicles POTENTIAL CAPABILITIES Cell replacement in a circuit Provide extracellular matrix products Contact with intact cells, altering their activity Provide anti-inhibitory molecules for axonal growth Myelination cone extension Provide diffusable molecules. As noted ganization that appears to simplify the problem earlier, important sensory inputs relate to the of motor contol.

Sinikar, 45 years: That study was interventions include physiotherapy, physical activity and not powered for a fracture endpoint; however, it is inter- fall prevention programs. Active against gram-positive and IV, IM 1 g q8–12h 1 mo to 12 y: IV 30–50 mg/kg (Fortaz) gram-negative organisms q8h, not to exceed 6 g/d 2. With propofol, delayed excretion and a longer half- toxicity in clients with hepatic disease. Mifepristone is a progesterone antagonist used to termi- Seizure Disorders nate pregnancy during the first trimester.

Felipe, 52 years: Note under a door, allowing you your own plate) the accompanying to perform a partner-free bungee cord, for those Janda sit up. It is indicated for use Macrolides are contraindicated in people who have had hyper- in serious infections for which no adequate substitute sensitivity reactions. Retention of carbon dioxide (acid) as a compensatory attempt to restore acid–base balance 5. In addition, these drugs may be given for pal- bidity and mortality, often stem from blood vessel abnormali- liation of symptoms without alteration of the underlying dis- ties.

Jerek, 22 years: Neurosci Lett 1997; 224: I, Tusunazawa Y, Suzuki T, Yanagida T, Kubota K. Evidence suggesting that this might be expected to be the case dates back to the early work on cortical electrical stimulation by Brindley (Brindley and Lewin, 1968), and Dobelle (Dobelle and Mladejovsky, 1974). Renal stones have been reported with topiramate and ditions, take multiple drugs, and have decreases in protein zonisamide. Depression is estimated tential contributory factors, the etiology of depression is un- to affect 5% to 10% of adults in the United States and to be clear.

Mortis, 44 years: The peripheral nervous system in- clusters of postganglionic cell bodies. We will discuss some aspects of the dose–response relationship on each device and problem here. The significance of low plasma levels • the content of supplements for infants and children and whether increased levels would decrease smoking-related younger than 4 years is regulated by the FDA; the con- diseases or have beneficial effects in other illnesses is un- tent of preparations for older children is not regulated. Ferguson Biomechanics of the aging spine Thomas Steffen Abstract the human spine is com- plied loads to the underlying cancel- posed of highly specific tissues and lous bone and the cortex of the verte- structures, which together provide bra.

Kor-Shach, 36 years: Drugs that increase effects of antidysrhythmics: These drugs may potentiate therapeutic effects or increase risk of toxicity. Anemia is decreased within approximately cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit. Clinical Research Center, set up a system to review research applications, and provide clinical care and oversight to the patients in the research center. JournalofPhysiology(London), neal group II facilitation of the quadriceps H reflex.

Marius, 60 years: When the peppers are cool enough to handle, remove and discard the skin using a paring knife. The cream is applied Most inhalation general anesthetics are minimally metabo- at the injection site with an occlusive dressing at least lized in the liver and therefore are unlikely to accumulate 60 minutes before vaccination or venipuncture. Thereisindirectevidencethat,inhumansub- (if the group I effect is subliminal), occlusion (if the jects, group II and non-monosynaptic group I exci- group I volley discharges the interneurones). Barrowclough C, Haddock G, Tarrier N, Lewis S, research and the future of psychotherapy.

Malir, 33 years: Repeat the same loading dose, and increase maintenance doses in 50 mcg/kg increments every 5–10 min until therapeutic effects are obtained. There sensitivity of the primary and secondary endings are two types of bag fibre, the bag1 and the bag2 by causing contraction in bag2 and chain fibres; fibre with morphological and functional differences. A physician tions and rehabilitation needs of their patients leader articulates, mobilizes, and persuades the (see Chapter 8). Eitherway, group I inhibition is required to maintain the con- given the much higher level of EMG activity during tribution of the soleus stretch reflex to the pushing running, there is evidence for an increase in pre- off of the foot.

Masil, 46 years: With empowerment, you will have the courage, willpower, and fortitude to stay the course. Following this plan, you will eat frequent small, healthful meals, and you will metabolize your food (burn your fuel) more efficiently and, consequently, have increased 111 IIII Copyright © 2005 David Kirsch. Cefepime is the first fourth-generation cephalosporin indicate the amount of imipenem; the solution contains an to be developed. Follow the advice in Chapter 4 if you choose to modify the daily menus, and always follow the A, B, C, D, E, and F nutritional rules.

Gancka, 64 years: Plasma levels of levonorgestrel with early embryonic development in the human CONTRACEPTION 335 species. I am so used to eating on the run and grabbing any type of junk food that will stop the hunger. At ankle level, testing usually involves peroneal inhibition of the soleus H reflex. Doherty said he choked the priest against a tree nearly to death until the priest described exactly what he had done to Vanders.

Irmak, 57 years: Panic attacks It is common to have these during the process of writing; after all we shall be judged on what we are about to write. The comitantly with muromonab-CD3, the dosage is reduced dose is tapered and discontinued as oral prednisone is initiated. I like to think of this two-week process as a program that helps addic- tion-proof your body. Use in Critical Illness Use in Older Adults Critically ill clients often have multiple cardiovascular and Digoxin is widely used and a frequent cause of adverse ef- other disorders that require drug therapy.

Dan, 34 years: High-risk patients include newborns, the debilitated, and the tive mechanisms allow survival of the aspirated organisms. It seems that, disc degeneration, facet joints osteoarthritis, or osteophytes excluding the true severe achondroplasia and some other in 90–100% of subjects aged over 64 years [19, 34]. If the underlying disease is the nose has a filter function, and is therefore mainly emphysema, shortness of breath may be exposed to a much larger amount of inhaled aller- the only symptom. Basic nutritional solutions to prevent further weight gain, lose weight, and maintain a provide water, carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, and minerals.

Silas, 47 years: When these azid [Marplan]) drugs are given concurrently with adrenergic drugs, there is danger of cardiac dysrhythmias, respiratory depression, and acute hyper- tensive crisis with possible intracranial hemorrhage, convulsions, coma, and death. How- by a synchronised group I volley (Araki, Eccles & ever, the size of the test reflex (or of the peak of Ia Ito, 1960; Chapter 1,p. Adverse effects occur infrequently with usual doses and A bismuth preparation is added to some regimens. Such an approach was now considered to be PSYCHIATRIC TREATMENT AND ITS more likely to restore reason than harshness EVALUATION: THE EARLY TWENTIETH or severity.

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